Buckyballs and Buckytubes
Our understanding of C60 wouldn't be, if it weren't for astronomy. Harold W. Kroto was analyzing radio astronomy patterns, when he discovered a naturally occurring unknown carbon in interstellar dust. Now, they are believed to be throughout the galaxy, and possibly surrounding (in) "Red Giants" and "Black Holes". Black holes, black body radiation, cosmic strings, fullerenes, structure, properties, and applications seem to be linked. I believe they are all intricately connected and have touched on them in my report.
Stephan Hawking's theories state that there is a form of blackbody radiation which blackholes produce. This happens when subatomic particles form ^sets^ of two, next to the black hole. One is sucked in, and one radiates off. Stephan Hawking says that if enough move off, the black hole disappears. The energy for the particle to radiate off, is taken from the black hole, and therefore diminishes its mass. Since a black hole's size has a relationship to "how many molecules are in it", every time it loses mass, it shrinks. It appears that this"blackbody radiation" characteristic of blackholes, is also a characteristic of buckyballs. Apparently fullerenes also can absorb and produce blackbody radiation. "Cosmic strings" attached to the black hole, are another "energy exit". With this being said maybe black hole aren't the big vacuum in space they were thought to be.
The Origins of Life
Scientists have found gas filled buckyballs embedded in 4.6-billion-year-old meteorites. These rare space gases are similar to gases, which were present when the solar system was first forming. If buckyballs have truly come from another planet, then it could mean they have the durability to survive the trip through the universe. This finding supports the theory that atmospheric gases and organic compounds arrived on Earth during asteroid and comet strikes, early in the planet's history when impacts were numerous. Scientists have found buckyballs in large amounts embedded in several meteorites. They hypothesize that the key ingredients for life on earth were made from these gases. If this is true it can lead to further speculations that we are not alone in the universe.
Buckyballs
First noted in the stars and later identified in common 'soot', fullerenes are now speculated to be part of the cosmic molecular streamers stretching to the center of the galaxy. C60 was only produced mechanically in 1990. This was after an experiment done by a scientists trying to recreate red giant star conditions. They realized that they had found a new type of carbon, which we know as C60 (other common terms for this are fullerenes and buckyballs).
Natural carbon can exist in numerous forms. Most people are familiar with graphite and diamond, but there's another form-- fullerenes. Often they are mistakenly called new, but fullerenes have been discovered to exist in interstellar dust as well as in geological formations on Earth. Fullerenes are big carbon-cage molecules. The most common one is C60-- also known as a "buckyball"-- but some other relatively common ones are C70, C76, and C84. Fullerene cages are about a billionth of a meter. In atomic terms, they are enormous. But fullerenes are still small compared to many organic molecules. C60 is made of 60 carbon atoms. All of which are linked together in a pentagon and hexagonal pattern. In fact it has the identical shape of a soccer ball. With this being said maybe one of the most monumental breakthroughs have been right under our noses, or right under our feet, the whole time.
BUCKYTUBES
In 1991, Sumio Iijima discovered buckytubes. He discovered them while examining buckyballs. He noticed the walls of the walls of the tube consist of carbon atoms arranged in hexagonal patterns with one pentagon to cork each end. Capping of the tube requires that the walls bend in a 3-dimensional manner and this is achieved by the incorporation of 5-membered rings in the carbon framework. Buckytubes are super fine filaments made of hexagonal ``chicken wire'' carbon mesh. Both buckytubes and buckyballs are from carbon, however, as the "balls" form, they incorporate the six and five sided carbons throughout the "ball". As the "tube" rolls up, it usually only incorporates the five-sided carbon at the ends of the tube. However, having said that, the tube can be "encouraged" to incorporate the five-sided carbon elsewhere in the tube as well, and this considerably changes the tube's abilities and properties.
Buckytubes are extremely strong and have high tensile strength. Their strength is equal to a diamond, the hardest substance known. They are unique not only in the way that they can conduct electricity, but also react to it. When a carbon nano tube is charged with electricity, it causes it to move up and down in a wave-like pattern. These facts make it perfect for a number of uses. One of uses being considered, is tethering satellites to the earthwith a 22,000-mile buckytube rope . This would make it easy to take down and put up satellites in space. Buckyballs and buckytubes are having new and amazing properties discovered every day. How much they capable of performing and transforming in the pressure and temperature variances of outer space, in proximity to Red Giants, space anomalies, and black holes is yet to be discovered.
These tubes have many properties which will be useful in their development. (a)Electrical conductivity: so far they have been found to be the best conductor of electricity on a nano scale level. (b)Thermal conductivity: they have been shown to be as good as diamonds. (c)Mechanical: they are the strongest and toughest fiber that has been found yet. With increased research and methods, we really might be able to tether satellites to the earth, like helium balloons. (d)Carbon based: they are carbon based, so it is something many are already familiar with. Carbon is the basis of most materials we use every day. (e)Molecular perfection: they have a high degree of uniformity and freedom from defects. When there is a "defect" it always seems to end up being another amazing property, instead of a problem. (f)Self-assembly: because of the strong forces between them, they can "automatically" group together, in some situations.
Last year only 3 kilograms of nano tubes were produced, selling for about $300 per gram. This is about 30 times the cost of gold. Analysts estimate that costs will soon be down to 50 or 60 dollars per gram. Companies such as IBM, Xerox, Mitsbushi and DuPont have already registered patents on buckyballs, and are currently experimenting with new concepts.
These tiny paradoxes are small enough to migrate through cell walls, conduct electricity as well as copper, conduct heat as well as diamond, and are 100 times stronger than steel at one-sixth the weight. As well, they have fluorescence. That is, they can absorb one wavelength of light, and emit another wavelength. One way this could be useful is in the fiber optics industry, medical industry, and oilfield. As well, different diameters of the buckytubes, absorb and give off different colors of light. A grouping of different sized diameters could be used to diagnose more than one medical condition at a time. OR, a grouping of different sized diameters could be injected into an oil well. When they were "circulated" back out, the color changes could give engineers critical information about the conditions downhole, as well as what's there. These and other applications have been expanded on ahead.
Applications
Buckyballs and buckytubes appear to be the Industrial Revolution of this century. They entice big businesses, defense/offense, humanitarians, individuals and the masses with their possibilities and promise. Having "come from the stars" (and possibly black holes/and/or a parallel universe) matters not at all to us on earth. We seek to "make them our own".
Although the following examples are separated into a few categories, almost any of the applications could be developed to apply to any circumstances conceivable.
Space Applications
Space exploration has always been difficult due to the elements and other harsh factors. Buckytubes and buckyballs work well under ANY temperature variations making them perfect for space.
·1) NASA Ames Research Center has the following amongst it interests: Chemical storage of data; Micro electrical Mechanical Systems (MEMS) gears and pumps; Nanotube heterojunctions; Nanotube as probes for metrology and measurement; Nanotube amplifiers; Nanotube robotic system manipulators; Molecular bearings; Nano capillaries; Nanotube ferromagnets; Coaxial nano cables; C60 coatings for magnetic disks.
2) Electrochemical, strength, communications, shielding, and optics are a few of the applications being pursued by NASA.
3) Even improved lighting in the spacecraft might benefit.
4) Biosensors for monitoring space crew, and/or space environments.
5) Protective coatings on any surface, which might be exposed during space flight.
Applications In the Oil Field.
One major concern with oil companies is the wear and tear of their equipment in harsh conditions like in Antarctica, where the temperature is below freezing. As many people know machines do not operate well under cold conditions. The gears start to freeze up, and before you know it the whole machine can not move. Studies have shown when engines are coated with buckyballs it decreases the engines' wear and tear tremendously. In fact some studies have shown it works so well that no visible wear appears. The added benefit is they work in any temperature. Which would be perfect for machines in Antarctica. If oil companies were to coat their machines in buckyball mixtures, they would have no problem with the gears freezing and wouldn't have to fix the equipment as often. This technology could also be applied to drill bits increasing their strength and performance.
1) Safety is critical in oilfield work, as elsewhere. Accidents cost misery, time off work, and of course money. Some situations have hazardous gases which have killed many oilfield workers. Now, with Buckytubes/Buckyballs, there is an opportunity for a solution. A silicon wafer, with a single embedded buckytube, can turn that wafer into a gas sensor.
2) Because buckytubes fluoresce, and different sized buckytubes absorb and give off different light ranges, they could have applications in the oilfield. A grouping of different sized diameters could be injected into an oil well. When they were "circulated" back out, the color changes could give geologists and engineers critical information about the conditions downhole, as well as what is actually there.
3) As well, this property of fluorescence could be used extensively in oil explorations. Mixtures of buckytubes could be injected in all sorts of locations (many which people would want to go to, or be easily able to go to), and the changes in light emitted could be read by satellites.
4) Buckytube transistors, as well, could make the equipment needed to explore for oil, and manage oilfields, much much smaller. With enough commercialization they will become cheap, as well as small. Much the way the price of calculators has dropped over the last thirty years. At least some of the awkward heavy equipment could be done away with. IBM, AT & T,Mitsubishi have both been leaders in investigating this. The advantage will be circuits that are smaller, cheaper, and faster.
5) A significant expense, both for replacing parts and loss of work time, in the oilfield is wear and tear on the actual parts of the drills, pump jacks, gears, and various other moving parts involved in oil exploration, drilling and production. In very cold regions (Artic), even getting to the sites can be difficult because the gears don't move well against each other in cold. There are two ways buckyballs could solve these problems. (a) Moving parts can be made with coatings of the buckyballs embedded in them. The tests have shown virtually no wear in ANY temperature. (b) As well, another company has developed an oil with a buckyball component. They have run the car engines with this oil in, to coat the engine parts. Then they drained the oil. Again, tests found little or no wear on moving parts after running them great distances. It seems that the protective component of buckyballs adheres well to metal either way.
Medical Applications
Buckyballs are making quite a stir in the medical world too. Their ability to trap gasses such as helium and store them, makes them suitable candidates for chemical and biological sponges. For example, when the brain is injured it releases deadly nerve toxins, which can have devastating effects on the brain. Doctors could use them as sponges to soak up all the harmful chemicals surrounding the brain. Then the chemicals would harmlessly pass through the body, without damaging any organs.
1) Researchers have found that buckyballs are a close fit on the site to block the HIV molecules. To put it in a more colorful way, they have found they can stop HIV activity by "plugging in" a buckyball. If this is successful, the possibilities are limitless for other similar applications. Further, since drugs or treatments (i.e. radiation) can actually be put inside a buckyball, it could be used in this way for cancer treatments.
2) Other researchers, as well, have found ways to alter buckyballs to fight diseases. They believe they can tailor make them to fight bacteria and fungus.
3) Researchers have developed buckytube artificial muscles which appear to be stronger and more durable than actual muscle. Possibilities for using this to repair human problems are exciting (ex: heart repair, other muscle repair in the body, etc.).
4) Columbia University researchers are working on ways to coat buckytubes with protein, and treat in such a way that the coated buckytube fluoresces in the presence of certain other chemicals or "triggers". The person could then be "scanned" and determinations could be made about levels of chemicals in the body (calcium, lead, etc.) as well for diagnosing diseases (cancer, make it specific to different viruses, etc). http://www.nature.com/nsu/011004/011004-2.html
5) Medical sponges is yet another use. Buckyballs could soak up free radicals in the brain, which are harmful chemicals the body produces after an injury.
6)Individual buckytubes have been used as tips on scanning-force microscopes. They have been found to be more durable than other tips previously used.
7) Individual buckyballs have successfully been used as part of VERY miniature circuits. This may lead to "bucky circuit inserts" which could be used to help "repair" damaged circuits in the brain or spinal cord.
8) Their excellent properties as lubricants, could also make them useful to insert into damaged joints where natural lubrication has eroded.
9) They are in use as a coating for a special type of lung x-ray.
10) Methods are being developed to utilize them as filters in areas such as organ transplants.
11)C60 is being developed by many different programs to treat a wide variety of medical concerns. One company, alone, currently lists seven significant medical uses.(a)C60 photo therapy for cancer(b)HIV treatments (c)use as antibodies d)use in treatment of diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's or Lou Gehrig's Disease. (d) designing C60 to reach specific tissues, for example to "highlight" certain tissues or organs during x-rays (bones, liver etc.), or to deliver drugs or treatments to specific areas. (e) improved materials for x-rays (f)drugs specific for treatment of osteoporosis (g)coronary applications such as stents or replacement of damaged valves.
12) Buckytubes have been found to be a possible replacement for any narrow "tube-like" part of the body-------i.e.: veins, neurons, muscle.
13) Weighing viruses, possibly to help identify their properties, is now also possible.
Military Applications
Buckytubes also have a wide variety of military applications, such as subs. If the hull of the sub was made of nano tubes it would be virtually indestructible. Plus instead of using propellers to push the sub forward, you could charge the hull of the sub with quick short bursts of electricity. This would cause the hull to move back and forth like a shark propelling it forward. Making virtually no noise in the water, as opposed to the conventional sub, which uses propellers and can be heard would make it undetectable. Oil transports would be virtually indestructible making it impossible for them to spill or leak harmful pollutants into the water.
Civilization anticipates endless possibilities and applications for buckytubes. Perhaps the most obvious and most practical use would be putting its toughness and durability to use. These qualities could be utilized in almost any area where strength is desired. For instance, tanks and other machines that demand superior armor would be a perfect candidate. Imagine a light weight tank that weighed only two cars (and was just as fast as one) plus 100 times the strength that steel offers. This would mean it could withstand a mine or missile attack without being scratched.
Another important development is manufacturing circuits on the molecular level. This could mean super computers in the palm of you hand, an entire CIA department could fit into your backpack. A spy could have everything and anything right there. Conventional gadgets like tape recorders will be reduced to the size of a pencil lead, and able to store thousands of hours of audio. Eventually even the spies will be replaced with tiny robots, the size of a bread crumb, but with intelligence, and entire array of tools at its disposal.
1) Buckminster fullerene (C60) stops light -- the brighter the light the more effectively it stops it. Nano and pico-second laser pulses are effectively and instantly opaque by small quantities of C60. A helmet visor treated with fullerene will instantly block an incoming laser beam -- the stronger the ray, the faster the glass turns dark. This feature could be developed to "shield" or "cloak" military planes and vehicles.
2) Also, since many bombs and missiles are laser (light) guided, planes, vehicles, buildings, etc., could be coated in this (it is becoming cheap enough this is actually possible), and it would block the "lock on light".
3) In many military operations, planes, helicopters, and other machines are needed in places where it is not possible or easy to do repairs. As well, some locations have considerable problems contributing to the wear and tear on moving parts. There are two ways buckyballs could solve these problems. (a) Moving parts can be made with coatings of the buckyballs embedded in them. The tests have shown virtually no wear in ANY temperature. (b) As well, another company has developed an oil with a buckyball component. They have run the car engines with this oil in, to coat the engine parts. Then they drained the oil. Again, tests found little or no wear on moving parts after running them great distances. It seems that the protective component of buckyballs adheres well to metal either way.
4) Buckyballs have "blackbody radiation" properties. : a blackbody absorbs and re-emits all radiation landing on it. This aspect, as well, could be exceptionally useful in "protective" or "stealth" military aspects.
Wrap-up
Buckyballs and buckytubes seem to be a case then, of if you can visualize it, someone can develop it. They do seem to have been created near (maybe in?) black holes. Perhaps in our thirst and hunger for new benefits, we'll be able to use them to find an answer to where life began; are there other universes out there; is there a way through a black hole; or if the "seed" for human life came from space (possibly in buckyballs) how did it get to "space"? Enhanced health, technology, leisure, and defense opportunities are worth exploring and worth enjoying. However, with any luck we won't exploit them largely to "build better bombs", or to "build a better mouse trap".
